D . Jaganathan

BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS IMPLICATIONS ON AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

D.Jaganathan, Ph.D Scholar in Agricultural Extension, IARI, New Delhi

Introduction

            Biotechnology, generally speaking, is any technique that is used to make or modify the products of living organisms in order to improve plants or animals, or to develop useful microorganisms.

            In modern terms, biotechnology has come to mean the use of cell and tissue culture, cell fusion, molecular, and in particular, recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) technology to generate unique organisms with new traits or organisms that have the potential to produce specific products.

            The origin of biotechnology can be traced back to prehistoric times, when microorganisms were already used for processes like fermentation.  Although a molecular biologist may consider cloning of DNA to be the most important event in the history of biotechnology, the latter has actually been rediscovered in 1970’s for the third time during the last century.

            What is new, however, is the extent of applications ad sophistication of biotechnology techniques currently employed.  Researchers can manipulate living organisms and transfer genetic material between organisms.  Genetic engineering, the specific modification or transfer of genetic material, underlies modern biotechnological innovations.  These current applications of biotechnology are predominantly practiced in the fields of agriculture and medicine.

Definition

            According to U.S.National Science Foundation “Biotechnology consists of the controlled use of biological agents, such as micro organisms or cellular components for beneficial use.

European Federation of Biotechnology defined Biotechnology is the integrated use of biochemistry, microbiology and engineering sciences in order to achieve technological application of the capabilities of micro organisms, cultured tissues/cells and parts thereof.

The FAO Glossary of biotechnology defines biotechnology as “a range of different molecular technologies such as gene manipulation and gene transfer, DNA typing and cloning of plants and animals”. The applications of biotechnology in agriculture are broadly termed as agricultural biotechnology. (FAO, 2001)

             The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) defines biotechnology as: “any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products for specific use” (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992).

Biotechnology in India

            Recognizing the importance and potential of biotechnology, the Government of India set up the National Biotechnology Board in 1982 which became a full fledged department called Department of Biotechnology (DBT) in 1986 under the Ministry of Science and Technology. The expenditure for biotechnology is given in Table 1.

Table 1. Plan expenditure by DBT in crop biotechnology (Rs. in Lakhs)

The main responsibilities of Department of Biotechnology are

i)          To evolve integrated plans and programmes in biotechnology

ii)         To identify specific R&D programmes in biotechnology and biotechnology related manufacturing

iii)         Establishment of infrastructure support at the national level

iv)        To act as an agent of the Government for import of new recombinant DNA based biotechnological processes, products and technology

v)         To evolve bio-safety guidelines for laboratory research, production and applications

vi)        To initiate scientific and technical efforts related to biotechnology

vii)        Programmes of manpower development in the areas of biotechnology

viii)       Establishment of international center for genetic engineering and biotechnology

Contributions of Biotechnology

            Biotechnology has been contributing much to the agricultural field and the most important among them are given below

Ø      Embryo culture, to recover haploid plants from interspecific hybrids, micro propagation of orchids 

Ø      Rapid clonal multiplication through meristem culture

Ø      Recovery of virus and other pathogens free stocks of clonal crops, Germplasm conservation through storage in liquid nitrogen at (-196 degree c)

Ø      Rapid isolation of homozygous lines by chromosome doubling of haploids produced through anther culture/ interspecific hybridization/ ovary culture

Ø      Isolation of stable somoclonal variants with improved yield traits/ disease resistance/ resistance to cold, herbicides, salt and other abiotic stresses

Ø      Gene transfers (genetic engineering) for insect, viruses, herbicide and abiotic stress resistances

Ø      Molecular markers for linkage mapping and mapping of quantitative trait loci

Biotechnology in Agriculture

            Biotechnology has revolutionized the research activities in agriculture.  It has facilitated in enhancing agricultural productivity, diversity and development of resistant varieties.

            The development of genetically engineered crops is one of the best-known applications of biotechnology in agriculture.  Using tissue culture technique, unlimited number of plants can be propagated from a single plant possessing the desired characteristics. Through biotechnology, naturally occurring chemical called photosynthesis improver have been developed, which have the potential for increasing plant productivity.  Biotechnology can be used to utilize the ability of nitrogen-fixing bacteria like Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Clostridium and Blue-green algae (BGA), these bio fertilizers shall increase the nitrogen fixing ability and serve as ecologically safer alternatives to chemical fertilizers.

            Newer biotechnological methods have enormously increased the scope for evolving improved varieties of plants of all kinds.  It is now feasible to develop and propagate plants that are resistant to different constraint such as drought, salinity, and various pests and diseases. Biotechnology facilitates in development of alternative strategies to wards pest control.  These include the use of biological control agents, attractants and growth-affecting agents.  These bio-pesticides are environment-friendly, non-carcinogenic and have a higher degree of insect-specificity.

            Seri biotechnology is the application of biotechnology for increasing the production of silk.  Biotechnology methods are being utilized for generating improved races with high silk yield.

            In the field of Animal husbandry, biotechnology is used to increase production efficiency through manipulation and control of physiological systems and by improving the health and well-being of animals.  Embryo transfer, artificial insemination, cloning and genetic engineering have resulted in newer varieties of animals that are disease-resistant, and have higher production levels.

            Applications of Biotechnology in food include areas like efficient grain storage by eliminating pests and rodents, increased nutritive value of food (nutracenticals which are cross between nutritional supplements and pharmaceuticals.  They include anti-oxidants, which are thought to reduce the risk of cancer), enhancement of flavour, single cell protein for human consumption or as fodder, fermented foods through enzyme engineering (bakers yeast, wine, beer etc.), mushroom cultivation development of tests for detection of food-contaminating micro organisms and the toxins they produce.

 (i)   Crop Biotechnology

            The department of biotechnology has built a strong base to take advantage of this innovative science.  Presently there are three types of research activities R&D projects on priority crops, multi-institutional projects, and plant molecular biology programmes in six institutions Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai; Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Osmania University, Hyderabad; Bose Institute, Calcutta; NBRI, Lucknow and Delhi University South Campus, New Delhi. The transgenic technology has been standardized and now emphasis on development of large number of transgenics in cotton, rice, mung bean and tomato.

(ii)        Bio fertilizers

            For a sustainable agriculture system, it is imperative to utilize renewable inputs which can maximize the ecological benefits and minimize the environmental hazards.  One possible way is to decrease dependence on chemical fertilizers and harvest the atmosphere nitrogen through biological processes. A programme on R&D and application of bio fertilizers has been initiated.  A network project on development of transgenic bio fertilizers which are efficient Nitrogen fixers and phosphate solubilisers was launched in the 10^th plan period.  Under this programme development of transgenic bio fertilizers has been undertaken by increasing copy number of ‘nif’ gene and in corporation of ‘hap’ gene.  Technology for mass production of AM fungi suitable for majority of crops including plantation crops has been developed by TERI, New Delhi.  IARI, Delhi has developed cheap and environment friendly biodegradable carrier material.

(iii)       Biopesticide and crop management

            Various programmes have been launched to develop cost effective, commercially viable mass production technologies of various bio control agents and their better formulations for use under integrated pest management.  Significant achievements are as under:-

1.         Mass production technologies have been developed for microbial, parasitoids and predators (Trichogramma) entomopathogenic (EPN) Nematodes and pheromones.

2.         Molecular studies have been conducted on bio control agents e.g. chitinase gene of Trichoderma species introduced in rice.

3.         Essential oils and neem seed limnoids have been identified as potential botanical pesticides against rice pathogens and spice and vegetable diseases.

(iv)       Animal Biotechnology

            R&D programmes have been launched for technology development and productivity improvement in livestock animals.  Research Activities to develop cost effective and commercially viable disease diagnostics and vaccine; to characterize indigenous breeds of livestock animals have been initiated.  Significant achievements are:

1.         Leads were obtained under various facets of embryo transfer technology in cattle and buffalo which included micro manipulation and embryo cloning using nuclear transfer, embryo sexing through PCR, reproductive ultra Sonography.  Embryo transfer camel calves were produced. Goat kids were also produced through ET technology.

2.         A multi centric programme for development of transgenic animals was launched at Indian institute of Science.  18 lines of transgenic mice comprising more than 110 founders’ mice were developed.

3.         Reconstituted collagen sheet (RCS) was developed from serosa layer of intestine and achillus tendon of cattle.

Transgenics

            Transgenic plants, genetically modified organisms (GMOs), living modified organisms (LMOs) and Genetically Engineered Organisms (GEOs) are synonyms and represent products of the process of transgenesis.  In literary terms transgenic (trans ± genic), as the word denotes, means transfer of genetic material (DNA fragment carrying known gene/s) from across the biological systems, i.e. from viruses to man (donors) into plats cells (recipient), through in-vitro techniques.  The plants derived from these cells are termed as genetically transformed plants or transgenic plants.  These plants transmit and express the introduced traits in successive generations.

Importance of transgenics in agriculture

            Biotechnology, based on recombinant DNA technology, is being advocated as an important adjunct to conventional plant breeding for sustainable development in agriculture.  The tools and techniques of recombinant DNA technology have widened the definition of ‘gene pool’ in plant breeding because it is now possible to mobilize candidate genes of interest into plants from hitherto inaccessible bio-resources.  There should be a judicious integration of biotechnological approaches in each of the following major components of conventional crop improvement programmes, viz. (i) integrated gene management, (ii) integrated nutrient management, (iii) integrated pest management, (iv) water management, (v) soil health care, ad (vi) post-harvest management.  The development of genetically tailored plants of tomorrow endowed with attributes enumerated above is a distinct possibility through the application of recombinant DNA technologies.  In recent years, the practical utility of alien genes through transgenesis has been extensively demonstrated and transgenic plants harbouring genes for insect pest, herbicide tolerance, improved post harvest shelf life, and for quality have been developed in a number of crop plants and are being grown commercially in both developed and developing countries.

Commercially released transgenics – an analysis

            The first transgenic plant, Flavr Savr TM tomato for delayed ripening, was released for commercial cultivation in 1994.  However, this transgenic could not be grown extensively because of the problems associated with its harvesting. The first commercially viable transgenics were those involving insect resistance in cotton, corn and soybean released by Monsanto, Ciba-giegy and Monsanto respectively in 1996, the area occupied by transgenics was about 1.7 million ha, which rose to 81.0 million ha in 2004.  A closer scrutiny of the crops, genetic traits and the countries growing the genetically modified (GM) crops is most revealing.  The following points were noticed

(i)                  The most of the global transgenic area is covered by only 6 crops i.e. soybean, corn, cotton, canola, squash, and papaya (Table 2).

(ii)                The most common traits engineered in these crops are, herbicide tolerance, insect resistance (only cry genes from Bacillus thuringiensis Bt.) and virus resistance (Table 3).  The crop and trait wise distribution of transgenics in 2004 (Table 4) has revealed that herbicide tolerant soybean dominated the scene.  It was grown in 48.4 million ha out of the total global transgenic area of 81.0 million ha, thus occupying 60% of the transgenic area.  Bt maize and Bt cotton occupied 11.2 and 4.5 million ha respectively.

(iii)               The country-wise distribution of the area under transgenics is higher in the industrialized countries as compared to developing countries, though both groups of countries registered a steady increase in the area over the years.  In 2004, of the 81.0 million ha under transgenics, industrial countries’ share was 53.4 mha (66%) as compared to 27.6 mha (34%) of the developing countries.  The country wise distribution of the transgenic area (Table 5) has revealed that most of the transgenic area was in USA (59%).  Rest of the countries had less than one million ha under transgenic crops.

            The unprecedented rapid adoption of transgenic crops during a short period from 1996-2004 in spite of on-going debate on GM crops vindicated the vision of the pioneers of crop biotechnology, who have seen their early promises of transgenic crops fulfilled.  Among the 16 countries, 10 industrialized and 6 developing countries, millions of large and small farmers are planting the GM crops because of the significant multiple benefits which include; more sustainable and resource-efficient crop management; more effective control of insects pests and weeds; reduction in pesticide application contributing to safer environment; and conservation of soil moisture through no or low tillage practices.

Table 2. Global area of transgenic crops in 2004 (m.ha)

Table 3 Global area of transgenic crops (trait wise) in 2004 (m.ha)

Table 4 Global area of transgenic crops ( crop and traits wise) in 2004 (m.ha)

Table 5. Global area of transgenic crops in different countries in 2004 (m.ha)

R&D on Genetically Modified Plants and Food grains in India

            Indian scientists at several national Insitutions/Universities are working on development of Genetically Modified Plants/Food grains.  The work is at various developmental stages.  Central Tobacco Research Institute, Rajamundry; Bose Institute, Kolkata; Tamilnadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore; Delhi University South Campus, New Delhi; Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi; ICAR Sub-station, Shillong; Central Potato Research Institute, Simla; Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi; Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai; Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad are some of the institutions involved in development of transgenic crops (Table 6). Some of the transgenic researches are carried out by the private sector and they are given in Table 7. Work has progressed with important research leads in tobacco, rice, mustard, rapeseed, potato, brinjal, tomato, cauliflower and pulses.  These crops are expected to have improved agricultural productivity or/and enhanced nutritional quality.  Although none of the Genetically Modified Plants/Food grains have come to a stage of introduction into commercial agriculture, the work in Potato, rapeseed, pigeon pea and brinjal are in advanced stage.  Transgenic potato with enhanced protein quality, quantity and increase in yield is under field evaluation.

            Under the Indian Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and Rules, 1989, all genetically modified foods are to assessed for their safety, before they are permitted for commercial release in the country.  The “Recombinant DNA Safety Guidelines’ were formulated in 1990 and subsequently these were revised in 1994 and in 1998.  The guidelines incorporate the testing requirements of genetically modified food materials to assess their adverse effects, if any, in human and animals.  A three-tier mechanism for biosafety is under implementation.  There are 145 Institutional Biosafety Committees, Review Committee to monitor, evaluate and recommend various proposals.  Government of India has not yet accorded approval for commercial release of any genetically modified food in the country.

            Genetically modified food is considered as novel food the world over.  Expertise is gradually getting generated in developed and developing countries.  Indian expertise is being strengthened continuously along with creation of state-of-the-art infrastructure for the past one decade.  A Transgenic Containment Facility has been set up at National Bureau of Plant Genetic resources, New Delhi.  Research projects have been formulated on development of analytical methods for testing genetically modified food and products derived there from.

Table 6. Transgenic research in India by Public Sector (Sharma et al, 2005)

Table 7.  Transgenic research in India by Private Sector (Sharma et al, 2005)

Bt Cotton in India

      The Bt cotton was introduced in India in 2002 and the procedure involved is given below. ( Sharma, 2005)

Bollgard Development process in India

1. Mahyco Institutional Biosafety Committee estasbilshed in 1995
2. Review Committee on Genetic Mani[pulation
3. Import of seeds in 1996
4. Backcrossing
5. Studies conducted

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