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LEARNING ORGANIZATION: D. Jaganathan, Ph.D Scholar
IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING The importance of learning was first put forward by a Chinese philosopher, Confucius (551 - 479 BC). He believed that everyone should benefit from learning."Without learning, the wise become foolish; by learning, the foolish become wise."
"Learn as if you could never have enough of learning, as if you might miss something."The underlying cause for recent emphasis on organizational learning is because of the increased pace of change. Learning was something divorced from work and innovation was seen as the necessary but disruptive way to change. The corporation, which is able to quickly learn and then innovate their work, will be able to change their work practices to perform better in the constantly changing environment. Change is now measured in terms of months not years as it was in the past. Business re-engineering used to concentrate on eliminating waste and not on working smarter and learning.
DEFINITIONS OF LEARNING ORGANIZATION There are many definitions on learning organizations and some of them are"The essence of organizational learning is the organization's ability to use the amazing mental capacity of all its members to create the kind of processes that will improve its own" (Nancy Dixon 1994)"A Learning Company is an organization that facilitates the learning of all its members and continually transforms itself" ( Burgoyne and Tom Boydell, 1991)"Organizations where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning to learn together" (Peter Senge, 1990)Learning organizations are those that have in place systems, mechanisms and processes, that are used to continually enhance their capabilities and those who work with it or for it, to achieve sustainable objectives - for themselves and the communities in which they participate.
The important points to note about this definition are that learning organizations:- Are adaptive to their external environment
- Continually enhance their capability to change/adapt
- Develop collective as well as individual learning
- Use the results of learning to achieve better results
NEED FOR A LEARNING ORGANIZATION
According to Art Kleiner, 1998 the following are the points which support the need for learning organization- we want superior performance and competitive advantage
- For customer relations
- To avoid decline
- To improve quality
- To understand risks and diversity more deeply
- For innovation
- For our personal and spiritual well being
- To increase our ability to manage change
- For understanding
- For energized committed work force
- To expand boundaries
- To engage in community
- For independence and liberty
- For awareness of the critical nature of interdependence
- Because the times demand it
HISTORY OF LEARNING ORGANIZATION
Major research into `the art of learning' did not actually start until the 1900's. In the 1950's, the concept of Systems Thinking was introduced but never implemented. Until the introduction of this concept, companies concentrated on their own needs not the needs of their workers. Systems Thinking tries to change the managerial view so that it includes the ambitions of the individual workers, not just the business goals.
One of the systems used was called Decision Support Systems (DSS). This was for the use of corporate executives to help them make decisions for the future. It was in fact the building of the models, which defined the systems that benefited the management rather than the system's operation. This was because the building of the model focused on what the business really was and the alternatives available for the future. One benefit of DSS was that it made implicit knowledge explicit. This makes extra knowledge available to the organization and will tend to allow the organization to learn better because explicit knowledge will tend to spread faster through an organization. In this respect DSS can be considered as an additional method of communication in organizations. This systems tool was predicted to be necessary for every executive's desktop. But this did not happen. In the 1970's, the same idea was renamed to Organizational Learning. One of the early researchers in this field was Chris Argyris from Harvard. He published a book on the subject in 1978. Even with this published information the concept still wasn't physically taken on by any companies. In the 1980's, companies discovered time as a new source of competitive advantage. This lead to `capabilities-based competition' which included the capability of learning. Many other people have continued along this line of research, such as Peter Senge - one of the modern day gurus. Information on the topic has been passed into various companies. These companies are now trying to become Learning Organizations. If the changeover to a Learning Organization happens overnight, the environment around the workers will be complex and dynamic. There will be agitations and confusion which means learning may not take place because of the chaos caused. So it can only be introduced into a company that is prepared to reach a balance between change and stability, i.e. a balance between the old and the new. Organizations must interact with the environment around them, so the environment must be suitable for that interaction.Peter Senge
Ø Born in 1947, graduated in engineering from Stanford, Masters on social systems modeling at MIT and PhD on Management.
Ø He is also founding chair of the Society for Organizational Learning (SoL), a Cambridge-based, non-profit membership organization
Ø special interest focus on decentralizing the role of leadership in organizations
Contributions of Peter Senge• The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of The Learning Organization (1990), co-authored a number of other books linked to the themes first developed in The Fifth Discipline.
• The Fifth Discipline Fieldbook: Strategies and Tools for Building a Learning Organization (1994)
• The Dance of Change: The Challenges to Sustaining Momentum in Learning Organizations (1999)
TYPES OF LEARNING A learning organization is not about 'more training'. While training does help develop certain types of skill, a learning organization involves the development of higher levels of knowledge and skill Level 1.- Learning facts, knowledge, processes and procedures. Applies to known situations where changes are minor. Level 2.- Learning new job skills that are transferable to other situations. Applies to new situations where existing responses need to be changed. Bringing in outside expertise is a useful tool here. Level 3 - Learning to adapt. Applies to more dynamic situations where the solutions need developing. Experimentation, and deriving lessons from success and failure is the mode of learning here. Level 4 - Learning to learn. Is about innovation and creativity; designing the future rather than merely adapting to it. This is where assumptions are challenged and knowledge is reframed.(Hamel and Prahaled,2000) CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING ORGANIZATION 1.Learning culture- Future, external orientation these organisations develop understanding of their environment; senior teams take time out to think about the future. Widespread use of external sources and advisors e.g. customers on planning teams.
- Free exchange and flow of information - systems are in place to ensure that expertise is available where it is needed; individuals network extensively, crossing organisational boundaries to develop their knowledge and expertise.
- Commitment to learning, personal development - support from top management; people at all levels encouraged to learn regularly; learning is rewarded. Time to think and learn (understanding, exploring, reflecting, developing)
- Valuing people - ideas, creativity and "imaginative capabilities" are stimulated, made use of and developed. Diversity is recognised as a strength. Views can be challenged.
- Climate of openness and trust - individuals are encouraged to develop ideas, to speak out, to challenge actions.
- Learning from experience - learning from mistakes is often more powerful than learning from success. Failure is tolerated, provided lessons are learnt ("learning from fast failure" - Peters).
2.Key Management process
- Strategic and Scenario Planning - approaches to planning that go beyond the numbers, encourage challenging assumptions, thinking 'outside of the box'. They also allocate a proportion of resources for experimentation.
- Competitor Analysis - as part of a process of continuous monitoring and analysis of all key factor in the external environment, including technology and political factors. A coherent competitor analysis process that gathers information from multiple sources, sifts, analyses, refines, adds value and redistributes is evidence that the appropriate mechanisms are in place.
- Information and Knowledge Management - using techniques to identify, audit, value (cost/benefit), develop and exploit information as a resource,use of collaboration processes
- Capability Planning - profiling both qualitatively and quantitatively the competencies of the organisation. Profiling these on a matrix can be helpful to planning adjustment:
- Team and Organisation development - the use of facilitators to help groups with work, job and organisation design and team development - reinforcing values, developing vision, cohesiveness and a climate of stretching goals, sharing and support
- Performance Measurement - finding appropriate measures and indicators of performance; ones that provide a 'balanced scorecard' and encourage investment in learning
- Reward and Recognition Systems - processes and systems that recognize acquisition of new skills, team-work as well as individual effort, celebrate successes and accomplishments, and encourages continuous personal development.
A wide range of learning and creativity skills in the following groups:
- Inquiry - interviewing, seeking information
- Creativity - brainstorming, associating ideas
- Making sense of situations - organising information and thoughts
- Making choices - deciding courses of action
- Observing outcomes - recording, observation
- Reframing knowledge - embedding new knowledge into mental models, memorizing
FIVE DISCIPLINES OF LEARNING ORGANIZATION
There are five disciplines as described by Peter Senge, which are essential to a learning organisation and these are:1.Team Learning
Virtually all-important decisions occur in groups. Teams, not individuals, are the fundamental learning units. Unless a team can learn, the organisation cannot learn. Team learning focusses on the learning ability of the group. Adults learn best from each other, by reflecting on how they are addressing problems, questioning assumptions, and receiving feedback from their team and from their results. With team learning, the learning ability of the group becomes greater than the learning ability of any individual in the group.2.Shared Visions
To create a shared vision, large numbers of people within the organisation must draft it, empowering them to create a single image of the future. All members of the organisation must understand, share and contribute to the vision for it to become reality.3.Mental Models
Each individual has an internal image of the world, with deeply ingrained assumptions. Individuals will act according to the true mental model that they subconsciously hold, not according to the theories which they claim to believe. If team members can constructively challenge each others' ideas and assumptions, they can begin to perceive their mental models, and to change these to create a shared mental model for the team. This is important as the individual's mental model will control what they think can or cannot be done.4.Personal Mastery
Personal mastery is the process of continually clarifying and deepening an individual's personal vision. This is a matter of personal choice for the individual and involves continually assessing the gap between their current and desired proficiencies in an objective manner, and practising and refining skills until they are internalised. This develops self esteem and creates the confidence to tackle new challenges.5.The Fifth Discipline - Systems Thinking
The cornerstone of any learning organisation is the fifth discipline - systems thinking. This is the ability to see the bigger picture, to look at the interrelationships of a system as opposed to simple cause-effect chains; allowing continuous processes to be studied rather than single snapshots. The fifth discipline shows us that the essential properties of a system are not determined by the sum of its parts but by the process of interactions between those parts. This is the reason systems thinking is fundamental to any learning organisation; it is the discipline used to implement the disciplines. Without systems thinking each of the disciplines would be isolated and therefore not achieve their objective. The fifth discipline integrates them to form the whole system, a system whose properties exceed the sum of its parts. However, the converse is also true - systems thinking cannot be achieved without the other core disciplines: personal mastery, team learning, mental models and shared vision. All of these disciplines are needed to successfully implement systems thinking, again illustrating the principal of the fifth discipline: systems should be viewed as interrelationships rather than isolated parts.THE BUILDING BLOCKS
Before a Learning Organisations can be implemented , a solid foundation can be made by taking into account the following1.Awareness
Organizations must be aware that learning is necessary before they can develop into a Learning Organization. This may seem to be a strange statement but this learning must take place at all levels; not just the Management level. Once the company has accepted the need for change, it is then responsible for creating the appropriate environment for this change to occur in.2.Environment
Centralized, mechanistic structures do not create a good environment. Individuals do not have a comprehensive picture of the whole organization and its goals. This causes political and parochial systems to be set up which stifle the learning process. Therefore a more flexible, organic structure must be formed. By organic, we mean a flatter structure which encourages innovations. The flatter structure also promotes passing of information between workers and so creating a more informed work force. It is necessary for management to take on a new philosophy; to encourage openness, reflectivity and accept error and uncertainty. Members need to be able to question decisions without the fear of reprimand. This questioning can often highlight problems at an early stage and reduce time consuming errors. One way of over-coming this fear is to introduce anonymity so that questions can be asked or suggestions made but the source is not necessarily known.3.Leadership
Leaders should foster the Systems Thinking concept and encourage learning to help both the individual and organization in learning. It is the leader's responsibility to help restructure the individual views of team members. For example, they need to help the teams understand that competition is a form of learning; not a hostile act. Management must provide commitment for long-term learning in the form of resources. The amount of resources available (money, personnel and time) determines the quantity and quality of learning. This means that the organization must be prepared to support this.4.Empowerment
The locus of control shifts from managers to workers. This is where the term Empowerment is introduced. The workers become responsible for their actions; but the managers do not lose their involvement. They still need to encourage, enthuse and co-ordinate the workers. Equal participation must be allowed at all levels so that members can learn from each other simultaneously. This is unlike traditionally learning that involves a top-down structure which is time consuming.5.Learning
Companies can learn to achieve these aims in Learning Labs. These are small-scale models of real-life settings where management teams learn how to learn together through simulation games. They need to find out what failure is like so that they can learn from their mistakes in the future. These managers are then responsible for setting up an open, flexible atmosphere in their organizations to encourage their workers to follow their learning example. Anonymity has already been mentioned and can be achieved through electronic conferencing. This type of conferencing can also encourage different sites to communicate and share knowledge, thus making a company truly a Learning Organization.IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES
Any organization that wants to implement a learning organization philosophy requires an overall strategy with clear, well defined goals. Once these have been established, the tools needed to facilitate the strategy must be identified. However, it is possible to identify three generic strategies that highlight possible routes to developing Learning Organizations. These initiatives are ably described using Peter Senge's Five Disciplines of Learning Organizations (Senge, 1990). The three strategies are:1.Accidental
For many companies, adopting a learning organization philosophy is the second step to achieving this Holy Grail. They may already be taking steps to achieve their business goals that, in hindsight, fit the framework for implementing a Learning Organization. This is the accidental approach in that it was not initiated through awareness of the Learning Organization concept.
2.Subversive
Once an organization has discovered the Learning Organization philosophy, they must make a decision as to how they want to proceed. This is a choice between a subversive and a declared strategy. The subversive strategy differs from an accidental one in the level of awareness; but it is not secretive! Thus, while not openly endorsing the Learning Organization ideal, they are able to exploit the ideas and techniques.
3.Declared
The other option is the declared approach. This is self explanatory. The principles of Learning Organisations are adopted as part of the company ethos, become company "speak" and are manifest openly in all company initiatives.
COMMON OBSTACLES IN BECOMING A LEARNING ORGANIZATION- Operational/fire fighting preoccupation - not creating time to sit back and think strategically
- Too focused on systems and process to exclusion of other factors
- Reluctance to train (or invest in training), other than for obvious immediate needs
- Too many hidden personal agendas
- Too top-down driven, overtight supervision
- Defensive routines
- Dynamic complexity of systems
- Inadequate and ambiguous outcome feedback
- Misperceptions of the feedback
- Poor interpersonal and organizational inquiry skills
- Start at the top - helpful to give an impetus
- Start with a chronic problem - always a good place to get the thinking caps on
- Initiate a Task Force - a common response, but they will need drive and vision
- Start with an Organizational Diagnosis - the HR consultants favour this one!
- Link to an existing process or initiative - go where there is existing energy
- Review existing systems and processes - an audit to identify a 'capability' gap
- New Product Development
CASE STUDIES OF THE LEARNING ORGANISATION
1.Apple Japan
Until 1989, Apple Japan, the Japanese arm of the multinational Apple Computing corporation, held only 1 percent of the country's personal computer market. The appointment of a new company president marked the beginning of an era -- he started the drive to increase Apple's presence in the market and accelerated change. The company was to achieve annual sales of $1 billion by the end of 1995 To meet this challenge the corporation approached the management consultant firm, Arthur D. Little, who has built up a wealth of experience in information technology and company restructuring. Apple Japan requested a sweeping plan to penetrate the market and increase efficiency within the company. In order to do this, they planned to reposition the brand, expand the range of distributors, improve customer management, and introduce the concept of the Learning Organization into the workplace.Methods
In order to implement Learning Organization techniques, Apple was advised to tackle the Five Disciplines which are essential to a learning organization: Team Learning, Shared Visions, Mental Models, Personal Mastery and Systems Thinking.
Although group meetings were a regular part of company practice, more time was allowed for group discussions and team education. This kept the work teams well informed and increased every individual's input to their project. With the increased emphasis on team learning, a shared vision was naturally introduced, allowing each member to work towards the same goal irrespective of their position. Each employee of the company had their own mental model of how the organization, their managers and team colleagues operate. By trying to bring each person's mental model into line with the rest of the team, the learning process was made more efficient and teams acted more coherently. Personal Mastery was also addressed by encouraging managers to set their staff challenging but reasonable goals, and introducing training programmes. The crucial discipline was Systems Thinking, which brought all the other factors together. This enabled each employee to make decisions, taking the whole system into account, instead of focusing specifically on their own problems. These disciplines were implemented by moderate restructuring and a program of education that was applied to everyone in the organization.Results
The re-organization resulted in a marked improvement in the company's sales, with growth exceeding the most optimistic projections:
Ø Market Share grew to 15% in 1995 from 1% in 1989
Ø Annual sales soared to $1.3 billion in 1994, with the sale of 520 000 computers
Although not all of the success can be attributed to the introduction of the Learning Organization concept, the results indicate an unprecedented improvement. The learning organization was a major player in instituting this growth.2.Yacimientos Petroliferos Fiscales (YPF)
YPF, the largest company in Argentina, is today a focused, highly productive oil and gas company involved in the exploration and production of oil and natural gas. It also refines markets and distributes oil and petroleum products. In 1989, the company employed 52 000 permanent and temporary staff, and included holdings in fields as far away from its main business as hospitals and cinemas. The challenge facing the company was to transform itself from an inefficient state-owned bureaucratic centre into an efficient private company that could attract international investment. In order to facilitate this change, the company went about re-designing its organizational structure and culture.Methods
From the outset, the Arthur D Little team worked with the YPF management in re-organizing their business. It was felt important that this re-design be only the first step in a long term aim of becoming a dynamic and modern organization. The concept of the Learning Organization was introduced.
The establishment of a measurement system was perhaps the biggest step -- this enabled the employees to evaluate and review what was going on in the company, thus learning about current processes and seeing what worked well. The introduction of working groups also benefited the business, as ideas could be discussed, and perceptions aired. Everyone in the business became more aware of the company's purpose and the collective effort reaped dramatic results.Results
Ø Losses of almost $579 million in 1990 were transformed into profits of $256 million in 1992 and $706 million in 1993
Ø The number of staff was reduced from 52000 to around 6000
Ø In July 1993, 44% of YPF was offered on the New York and Beunos Aires stock exchanges, raising $3 billion for the Argentine government. $1 billion has since been raised with the sale of further 13 %
This entire restructuring was completed in just two years, leaving the company with a strong framework and tools for continuous learning and improvement.
THE FUTURE OF THE LEARNING ORGANIZATION
In the future the following areas will become increasingly more important
Investment in Learning
There will be more emphasis on learning and hence more investment in improving individuals, teams and the organisation. There will be more emphasis on the ability to learn and take on board new ideas and methods. Training will be provided by people within the company who actually do the work. Training will no longer be a separate activity but an integral part of the teams in the company.
Technology
The price per performance ratio of technology will increase greatly. The value of technology compared to labour will improve by an even greater amount. Technology will become more cross functional and transparent.
Information Highway
The increased access to the information highway will make information more available and to a wider audience. Barriers to learning, such as lack of information and the availability of material will be reduced. Learning Organisation will harness this form of information and use it to their advantage. Employees regardless of their status will have access to information that previously only their managers had.
Knowledge is the Key
In the future, organisation will be based on knowledge and not just physical assets such as land or products. The most important employee will be a `knowledge worker' and employees will be judged on their ability to learn.
Unemployment?
The increased use of technology and the increased efficiency of individuals will lead to some necessary redundancies; whether this leads to an overall increase in unemployment is more debatable. The true `knowledge worker' will be able to adapt his/her skills to re-employment.
Learning Culture
Previous organisation cultures which are based on position or hierarchy will disappear. The culture of an organisation will be based on learning and the skills of individuals.
Customer - Client Relationships
A learning culture will help customers and clients understand each other's needs better. It will allow a greater degree of co-operation between customer and clients.
RISKS IF IMPLEMENT THE CHANGES
i. To be effective, the change must be drastic and not introduced slowly as time is money
ii. Not all employees want to learn and will resist the change
iii. The openness created endangers the trust between employees
iv. Ignorance about learning; that is not following the proper learning cycle
v. Too much emphasis on learning and not enough on getting the job done
vi. Information overload, too much to absorb at once
vii. The culture of the country may be a disadvantage
POTENTIAL ADVANTAGES OF LEARNING ORGANIZATIONS
The People Develop
A Learning Organization encourages its members to improve their personal skills and qualities, so that they can learn and develop. They benefit from their own and other people's experience, whether it be positive or negative.
Greater motivation
People are appreciated for their own skills, values and work. All opinions are treated equally and with respect. By being aware of their role and importance in the whole organization, the workers are more motivated to "add their bit". This encourages creativity and free-thinking, hence leading to novel solutions to problems. All in all there is an increase in job satisfaction.
The workforce is more flexible
People learn skills and acquire knowledge beyond their specific job requirements. This enables them to appreciate or perform other roles and tasks. Flexibility allows workers to move freely within the organization, whilst at the same time it removes the barriers associated with a rigidly structured company. It also ensures that any individual will be able to cope rapidly with a changing environment, such as those that exist in modern times.
People are more creative
There are more opportunities to be creative in a learning organization. There is also room for trying out new ideas without having to worry about mistakes. Employees' creative contribution is recognized and new ideas are free to flourish.
Improved social interaction
Learning requires social interaction and interpersonal communication skills. An organization based on learning will ensure members become better at these activities. Teams will work better as a result.
Teams and Groups Work Better
Learning Organizations provide the perfect environment for high performing teams to learn, grow and develop. On the other hand these teams will perform efficiently for the organization to produce positive results.
Knowledge sharing
A team is composed of highly specialized members who can not and are not expected to know everything about a job. In this case the sharing of common knowledge is quite important for the completion of a job. Within learning organizations in general, and teams in particular, information and knowledge flows around more freely. This makes for higher productivity within teams and between teams as they build on each others strengths. Trust between team members increases and hence they value each others opinions more.
Interdependency
In any organization people depend on each other for the completion of their jobs. Learning Organizations will increase this awareness, and improve relations between people at a personal level. By knowing more about other people's roles, needs and tasks, members can manage their time better and plan their work more efficiently.
Breakdown of traditional communication barriers
The old hierarchical communication barrier between manager-worker has devolved into more of a coach-team member scenario. Leaders support the team, not dictate to it. The team appreciates this which in turn helps them to be highly motivated. All workers have an increased awareness of the company's status, and all that goes on in other departments. Workers perform better as they feel more a part of the company; they are not just pawns in a game.
Customer relations
A company's first priority is its customer's needs. A Learning Organization cuts the excess bureaucracy normally involved with customer relations allowing greater contact between the two. If the customers’ requirements change, learning organizations can adapt faster and cope more efficiently with this change.
Information resources
Over time a company builds up a pool of learning, in the form of libraries, and human expertice. This pool of knowledge within learning organizations is larger than average. New problems and challenges can be met faster using this increased resource.
Innovation and creativity
As more people in every level of a company engage in continual learning a valid contribution can come from any member of the company, and from any part of the company. Being innovative and creative is the responsibility of the whole workforce and allows learning organizations to adapt to changes in the state of the market, technology and competition efficiently.
Moreover, this creativity gives rise to an increased synergy. The interaction between high performing teams produces a result which is higher than was planned or expected of them.
Conclusion
The perfect Learning Organization is not an attainable goal, it is merely a desirable concept: there is no correct implementation of the Learning Organization. Every company can continuously adapt and adjust and some will be better Learning Organizations than others, but every one of them has something new to learn. Finally it should be mentioned that the Learning Organization is just a means to a business goal, created to improve productivity and most importantly profit. Quite how long this philosophy will remain fashionable is unknown. What is certain is that for any company in today's global marketplace continuous change and adaptation is the only way to survive.References
Ø Argyris, C. and Schön, D. (1996) Organizational learning II: Theory, method and practice, Reading, Mass: Addison Wesley. Ø Smith, L. Araujo and J. Burgoyne (eds.) Organizational Learning and the Learning Organization, London: Sage. Ø Edmondson, A. and Moingeon, B. (1999) ‘Learning, trust and organizational change’ in M. Easterby-Smith, L. Araujo and J. Burgoyne (eds.) Organizational Learning and the Learning Organization, London: Sage. Ø Finger, M. and Brand, S. B. (1999) ‘The concept of the “learning organization” applied to the transformation of the public sector’ in M. Easterby-Smith, L. Araujo and J. Burgoyne (eds.) Organizational Learning and the Learning Organization, London: Sage. Ø O’Neill, J. (1995) ‘On schools as learning organizations. An interview with Peter Senge’ Educational Leadership, 52(7) http://www.ascd.org/readingroom/edlead/9504/oneil.html Ø Schultz, J. R. (1999) ‘Peter Senge: Master of change’ Executive Update Online, http://www.gwsae.org/ExecutiveUpdate/1999/June_July/CoverStory2.htm Ø Senge, P. et. al. (1994) The Fifth Discipline Fieldbook: Strategies and Tools for Building a Learning Organization Ø Senge, P., Kleiner, A., Roberts, C., Ross, R., Roth, G. and Smith, B. (1999) The Dance of Change: The Challenges of Sustaining Momentum in Learning Organizations, New York: Doubleday/Currency). Ø Senge, P., Cambron-McCabe, N. Lucas, T., Smith, B., Dutton, J. and Kleiner, A. (2000) Schools That Learn. A Fifth Discipline Fieldbook for Educators, Parents, and Everyone Who Cares About Education, New York: Doubleday/Currency Ø Stenhouse, L. (1975) An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development, London: Heinemann.
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